Life & Career

• Born in Eisenach, Germany; orphaned by age 10, raised by his brother Johann Christoph
• Trained as organist; held positions at Arnstadt (1703), Mühlhausen (1707), Weimar (1708–17), Cöthen (1717–23), then Leipzig (1723–1750) as Kantor of the Thomasschule
• Influenced by: German predecessors (Buxtehude, Froberger); Italian composers (Vivaldi, Corelli); French composers (Lully, Marais)
• Profoundly shaped by his Lutheran faith — many sacred compositions bear "SDG" (Soli Deo Gloria)
• Fathered 20 children; four sons became notable composers, especially C.P.E. Bach and J.C. Bach
• Limited wider recognition during his lifetime; rediscovered in the 19th century largely through Mendelssohn

Major Works

• Keyboard: Well-Tempered Clavier (2 vols.), Goldberg Variations, English Suites (6), French Suites (6), Partitas (6), Inventions & Sinfonias, Toccatas, Art of Fugue, Italian Concerto
• Orchestral: Brandenburg Concertos (6), Orchestral Suites (4), many solo concertos
• Vocal: Mass in B minor, St Matthew Passion, St John Passion, Christmas Oratorio, over 200 cantatas
• Organ: Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor, Toccata and Fugue in D minor, many chorale preludes

About the Fantasia BWV 906

• A fantasia has roots in improvisation — free, spontaneous character, following established forms loosely if at all; the term dates to the 16th century
• Paired with an incomplete fugue (also in C minor) — the fugue was never finished
• Notable as an example of Bach experimenting with the Empfindsamer Stil (expressive style) more associated with his sons
• Some scholars (e.g. Schulenberg) describe it as in sonata form, but rounded binary form is more appropriate — bars 35–42 cannot be a Recapitulation if the secondary thematic material (bars 9–17) never returns
• Would have been composed for harpsichord or clavichord (Bach's favourite was the clavichord, according to his first biographer Forkel)

Main Musical Features

• Sequence (both melodic and harmonic) is a defining feature throughout
• Texture alternates between homophonic (hierarchical) and polyphonic (more equal voices)
• Continuous, driving rhythm — characteristic of the late Baroque style
• Extensive use of ornamentation and chromatic decorations in the melody
• Main theme: uppermost voice contains a chromatic descent from tonic to dominant
• Secondary chords: secondary dominants and secondary leading-note chords in bars 2–3; flattened ninth added to secondary dominant in bar 6 (making it also an extended chord)
• Cadential Ic chords used at structurally important cadences (bars 8, 12, 13, 16, 17, etc.); an accented Ic (not cadential) occurs at bar 18
• Borrowed chord: F major triad in bar 2 (from parallel major) supports the chromatic descent
• Bars 5–6: extreme decoration — chromatic scale, semiquaver triplet sequence with appoggiatura figures

Structure: Rounded Binary Form — Modulations

Modulations to: E♭ major (relative major), G minor (dominant), F minor (subdominant), A♭ major (relative of subdominant)

Section	Sub	Bars	Key	Description
A	—	1–4	C minor	Main theme, RH melody; LH outlined chords + countermelodic gestures. Ends: imperfect cadence.
	—	5–8	C minor	2nd phrase — same material, partly inverted; melody passes to LH (bars 5–7). Polyphonic texture. Ends: imperfect cadence.
	—	9–14¹	E♭ major	Secondary theme — contrast in key and texture. Modulating sequence tonicises F minor, settles E♭ via perfect cadence (bar 12; repeated bars 13–14).
	—	14–17	G minor	Closing passage. New chromatic, polyphonic material with sequence. Perfect cadences in G minor.
B	b	18–25	G minor→F minor	Contrasting passage based on opening theme (bars 1–2 restated at 18–19). Highly chromatic polyphonic sequences. Settles F minor with imperfect cadence.
	b	26–29³	A♭ major	Secondary theme (bars 9–12) transposed to A♭, hands swapped.
	b	29¹–34	A♭→C minor	Transitional passage back to tonic. Chromatic sequence; concludes imperfect cadence on G major triad.
	a′	35–38³	C minor	Opening theme reprised (bars 1–3 exactly), varied at bar 38; interrupted cadence leads into final passage.
	a′	38³–42	C minor	New thematic material; elaborate chromatic sequence then tonic key reemerges; strong perfect cadences in repeat bars.

Baroque Period Characteristics (ca 1600–1750)

Instrument Note

Bach composed for the harpsichord and clavichord. The harpsichord plucks strings (no dynamic shading by touch); the clavichord strikes strings and can produce subtle dynamics and Bebung vibrato, but is very soft in tone. Neither has a sustaining pedal — articulation and arpeggiation were primary expressive tools.

Key Terms

• Fantasia: free, improvisatory composition — spontaneous style, loose formal conventions
• Empfindsamer Stil: "expressive style" — more emotional, associated with C.P.E. Bach
• Rounded binary: ABA′ structure within two main sections (often with repeat signs)
• Appoggiatura: non-chord note (often accented) resolving by step to chord tone
• Accented Ic: stressed second-inversion triad resolving to root-position triad in the middle of a phrase (not at a cadence)
• Secondary dominant: chromatic chord functioning temporarily as V of a chord other than the tonic
• Borrowed chord: chord taken from the parallel major or minor key
• Extended chord: chord with added 9th, 11th, or 13th above the root

Contemporaries of Bach

Handel (German-British, 1685–1759), Telemann (German, 1681–1767), Domenico Scarlatti (Italian, 1685–1757), Vivaldi (Italian, 1678–1741), Rameau (French, 1683–1764).

Life & Career

• Born on the island of Burano near Venice; father a barber who played violin in theatre orchestras
• Aged 16, composed his first opera La fede nell'incostanza (also known as Gli amici rivali) — a public failure; he then focused on compositional fundamentals with Antonio Lotti
• Within a decade: widespread acclaim across Europe as opera composer and keyboard virtuoso
• Appointed maestro di cappella at St Mark's Basilica, Venice (1762)
• Music director at Catherine II's court, St Petersburg (1765–1768)
• His 1740s collaborations with playwright Carlo Goldoni established dramma giocoso (comic opera with drama) as a dominant operatic form

Major Works

• Opera (100+): L'Arcadia in Brenta (1749), Il mondo della luna (1750), Il filosofo di campagna (1754)
• Keyboard: Over 100 sonatas; sacred music, oratorios
• His comic operas, with ensemble finales and dramatic vitality, significantly influenced later opera buffa
• Closest contemporaries: C.P.E. Bach, J.A. Hasse, G.B. Sammartini

About the Sonata T 12 / Allegro

• Sonata T 12 is a three-movement work. This is the second movement, preceded by a gentle Andantino and followed by a Presto gigue — both in F major (tonic key)
• Exact date of composition unknown; mature style suggests after 1750
• Allegro: fast and lively tempo; also translates as "cheerful," giving a guide to mood
• The movement most strongly resembles the Classical style despite Galuppi's Baroque-era formation
• Exemplified by: light and elegant character, simple chordal accompaniment figures, form that foreshadows mature sonata form

Sonata Form — Variations in this Movement

• Monothematic sonata form: both first and second subjects based on the same melodic material (bar 1–2 material returns at bar 29 in C major). This does NOT mean only one theme — both subjects begin similarly but develop into distinct ideas.
• The theme in bars 21–28 is labelled as part of the transition but is bold and assertive, prominent in Development and Recapitulation; its atypical approach to tonality (half in parallel minor in Exposition; entirely parallel minor in Recapitulation) makes classification complex
• The Recapitulation is a hybrid — it has aspects of standard sonata form AND binary sonata form, interweaving both thematic structures
• Repeat signs enclose the Exposition, and the Development + Recapitulation together

Main Musical Features

• Sequence and pedal point feature extensively
• All chromaticism pertains to modulations and tonicisations
• Bar 85: notes on beat 2 form an augmented sixth interval — suggests motion from an augmented sixth chord to V in D minor
• Dominant pedal in bars 21–28 and 92–99
• Interrupted cadence in bars 33–40 resolves to A♭ major (borrowed from parallel minor)

Structure: Sonata Form — Modulations

Key modulations: C major (dominant), C minor (parallel of dominant), G minor (relative of subdominant), F minor (parallel minor)

Section	Subsection	Bars	Key	Description
Exposition	1st thematic group	1–9²	F major	Main theme: 4-bar phrase + strong perfect cadence; repeated one octave lower.
	1st thematic group	9³–15¹	F major	2nd theme: 2-bar unit with perfect cadence; played three times (2nd time octave lower; 3rd elides into transition).
	Transition	15–21	F→C major	Descending sequence of new material; perfect cadence in C major.
	Transition	21–28	C major→C minor	New 4-bar phrase stated twice (dominant, then parallel minor); over dominant pedal; imperfect cadences.
	2nd thematic group	29–32	C major	Bars 1–2 restated in dominant key. Bars 31–32 = short bridge.
	2nd thematic group	33–40¹	C major→C minor	2nd theme (from bar 9), developed; dramatic interrupted cadence → A♭ major (borrowed chord).
	2nd thematic group	40–44	C minor	Bridging passage; sequential descent; imperfect cadence.
	2nd thematic group	45–53	C major	2nd theme repeated; strong perfect cadence.
Development	—	54–60¹	C major	Truncated restatement of opening theme in dominant, eliding into new material.
	—	60–68	C→C minor→G minor	Modulating sequence; imperfect cadence in G minor.
	—	69–76	G minor→F major	Transition theme (bars 21–28) stated twice; returns to tonic with imperfect cadence.
Recapitulation	1st/2nd thematic group	77–80¹	F major	Opening theme restated in tonic (different presentation).
		80–91	F major→C major	Bridging passage; two modulating sequences (B♭, G minor, C, D minor; then similar).
		92–99	F minor	Transition theme (21–28) restated entirely in parallel minor.
		100–107¹	F major→F minor	2nd theme of 2nd thematic group, transposed to tonic.
		107–111	F minor	Restatement of bars 40–44 in parallel minor.
		112–121	F major	2nd theme of 2nd group in tonic; emphatic perfect cadence.

Galant / Transitional Style Characteristics

Key Terms

• Allegro: fast and lively; also means "cheerful"
• Monothematic sonata form: both subjects derived from the same melodic material
• Dramma giocoso: "drama with jokes" — comic opera subgenre Galuppi helped establish
• Galant style: singable melodies, regular phrasing, light accompaniment — early Classical aesthetic
• Dominant pedal: sustained bass note on the dominant, creating tension/expectation
• Augmented sixth chord: chromatic chord containing an augmented 6th above the bass; leads to dominant

Contemporaries of Galuppi

C.P.E. Bach (German, 1714–1788), G.B. Sammartini (Italian, 1700–1775), Johann Adolph Hasse (German, 1699–1783), early Haydn (Austrian, 1732–1809), early Mozart (Austrian, 1756–1791).

Life & Career

• Born Clara Wieck in Leipzig; trained by her father Friedrich Wieck, a renowned piano pedagogue
• Aged 11: already touring Europe, performing before Goethe, Paganini, and Chopin
• One of the most celebrated pianists of the 19th century
• Married composer Robert Schumann in 1840 against her father's wishes; a passionate but tumultuous marriage marked by financial hardship and Robert's tragic mental illness
• After Robert's death in 1856: dedicated herself to a demanding concert career to support her seven children
• Fierce advocate for Robert Schumann's music and for her close friend Johannes Brahms
• Taught at the Hoch Conservatory, Frankfurt, from 1878
• Principal influences: J.S. Bach and Mozart (structure and counterpoint); Robert Schumann (compositional voice)

Major Works

• Piano: Piano Concerto in A minor Op. 7 (premiered age 14), Quatre pièces fugitives Op. 15, Soirées musicales Op. 6, Scherzo Op. 10, variations on a Chopin Nocturne, Three Romances Op. 11, Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann Op. 20
• Chamber: Piano Trio Op. 17
• Songs: Drei Romanzen for violin and piano Op. 22; songs Op. 12, Op. 13, Op. 23
• Output is relatively small but highly regarded for lyrical beauty, formal command, and expressive depth

About Quatre pièces fugitives Op. 15 / Un poco agitato

• Quatre pièces fugitives (Four fugitive pieces) written soon after Clara's marriage in 1840; first published 1845
• "Fugitive" refers to the unrestrained, free nature of the music — less restricted by formal conventions than earlier eras
• Un poco agitato = "a little agitated"; No. 2 of the set
• Preceded by a dreamy Larghetto in F major; followed by a lengthy Andante espressivo in D major and a playful Scherzo in G major
• Romantic style exemplified: restless and dramatic character, rich harmonic language, extensive chromaticism, virtuosity required

Main Musical Features

• Dissonances: Bar 2, beat 1 — G# diminished seventh (VII°7) over tonic bass, plus appoggiatura C resolving to B
• Bar 17, beat 1 — double suspension (D and F from previous chord) resolving to extended chord V⁹ in D minor
• Secondary dominants throughout; bar 11 last beat = secondary dominant with flattened ninth (also extended chord)
• Bar 35: secondary leading-note chord over a dominant pedal
• Bar 54³: German augmented sixth chord
• Modulating sequence in B section tonicises G major and E major (bars 35³–45)
• Final cadence: B half-diminished seventh → A minor — a variation on a plagal cadence (II–I, since II⁰7 contains all notes of chord IV)
• Two plagal cadences conclude section A¹ (IV–I)

Structure: Ternary Form — Modulations

Most significant modulation: C major (relative major); shorter modulation to D minor (subdominant)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A¹	1–7¹	A minor → C major	Main theme: 2-bar phrase with weak perfect cadence, stated twice; third time changes direction → strong perfect cadence in C major.
	7–13¹	C major → A minor	Similar 2-bar phrase in relative major (chromatic embellishment); second appearance → modulation; imperfect cadence in tonic.
	13–20¹	A minor	Very similar to first segment; 2nd appearance extended and developed, tonicises D minor, concludes with strong perfect cadence in tonic.
	20–27¹	A minor	Concluding passage restating perfect cadence (bars 23–24); two plagal cadences close section.
B	27²–35³	C major	New theme: two 4-bar phrases in relative major; each concludes with imperfect cadence. Anacrusis alludes to section A¹.
	35³–45¹	C major	Opening theme material developed via modulating sequence (G major, E major, back to C major); imperfect cadence. Fleeting C minor chords bars 41–44.
	45²–53¹	D minor → A minor	4-bar phrase from bars 24–25 in subdominant; repeated a 4th lower in tonic. Weak perfect cadence.
	53²–59¹	A minor	Two fragmented, highly chromatic phrases from opening gesture of previous segment; imperfect cadence in tonic.
A²	59–65¹	A minor → C major	Restatement of bars 1–7¹ (slight modifications).
	65–71¹	C major → A minor	Restatement of bars 7–13¹ (slight modifications).
	71–78¹	A minor	Restatement of bars 13–20¹ (slight modifications).
	78–85	A minor	Bars 78–81 restate 20–23; brief plagal cadence; elaborate RH flourish (C# suggests major); minor reconfirmed in final chord.

Romantic Period Characteristics

Key Terms

• Un poco agitato: a little agitated
• Ternary form: ABA structure; B section contrasts; A returns (often varied)
• Appoggiatura: non-chord note (accented) resolving by step; makes music more expressive
• Double suspension: two notes held over from previous chord, both resolving
• German augmented sixth: chromatic chord containing augmented 6th + major 3rd + perfect 5th above bass; resolves outward to dominant
• Plagal cadence: IV–I progression (IV–i in minor); also called "Amen cadence"
• Modulating sequence: sequential passage that moves through several keys
• Secondary leading-note chord: diminished or half-diminished chord that temporarily functions as VII° of another key

Contemporaries of Clara Schumann

Robert Schumann (German, 1810–1856), Chopin (Polish, 1810–1849), Liszt (Hungarian, 1811–1886), Brahms (German, 1833–1897), Mendelssohn (German, 1809–1847).

Life & Career

• Born in South Australia; child prodigy who studied at the Elder Conservatorium in Adelaide
• Won scholarship to the Royal College of Music, London
• Reportedly expelled from a composition class with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford for "too-extreme harmonic experiments" — reflects his unconventional spirit
• Returned to Adelaide; became a central figure in the city's musical life
• Founded an orchestra in 1935 (often called the "Brewster-Jones Symphony Orchestra") which championed contemporary French and Russian music
• Influenced by: Debussy, Ravel, Scriabin, and Roslavets; the natural sounds of the Australian bush; Aboriginal songs and folklore (through a European lens)
• His music and legacy as an important figure in early Australian Modernism has only recently been reevaluated
• Made no attempts to have his manuscripts published; music known only to his inner circle during his lifetime

Major Works

• Orchestral: Symphonic poem Australia felix
• Piano: Australian bird call impressions (73 pieces based on calls of South Australian birds — composed in the 1920s); experimental Formula series
• The complete set of Australian bird call impressions was eventually published more than 50 years after Brewster-Jones's death; performed and recorded by Australian composer-pianist Larry Sitsky
• His Australian bird call impressions predates Olivier Messiaen's Catalogue d'oiseaux (a famous collection of birdsong-based piano works) by more than thirty years

About Rosella's Wooing

• No. 28 from Australian bird call impressions — 73 pieces for solo piano based on calls of South Australian birds captured in and around Adelaide and the Flinders Ranges
• Uses a repeated-note figure featuring a descending perfect fourth to imitate the call of the rosella (a beloved Australian native parrot)
• The Modernist style is exemplified by: fragmented melodic writing, jazz-inflected harmony, free approach to chromaticism
• The incorporation of birdsong gives the melody a slightly unpredictable quality — much fragmentation and irregular phrase lengths

Main Musical Features

• Descending-fifths (circle-of-fifths) progressions throughout section A: opening bars = II⁷–V–I (first two chords over dominant pedal); bars 6–8 (also 14–16, 34–36) = V⁷b/VI–VI–II⁷–V–I
• Frequent use of seventh chords and occasional extended chords (bar 17 = A¹³ — first chord of section B) — inflects the work with jazz influence
• Section A shows minimal chromaticism; section B uses a free approach to chromaticism with incidental chords from chromatic passing notes (bars 19, 23)
• Section B: abrupt modulation to D major — a distantly related key. Enharmonic spelling: G♭ appears as F# major; C# dominant seventh is an enharmonically spelled V⁷ chord in G♭ major
• Bars 25–26: G# over D major triad in tonally ambiguous fashion — brings both key centres into direct confrontation before the return of G♭
• Pentatonic flourish in the left hand (bar 3 area) — links to Australian landscape influence
• Section A is an exact repeat of bars 1–8 at bars 9–16

Structure: Ternary Form

Only modulation: to the distant key of D major (enharmonic relationship to G♭)

Section	Bars	Key	Description
A	1–4	G♭ major	First 4-bar phrase. Bar 1–2: birdsong motive (1 bar, repeated exactly). Bar 3: similar start, then pentatonic LH flourish + descending sequence → imperfect cadence bar 4.
	5–8	G♭ major	Second 4-bar phrase. New 1-bar motive (bars 5–6); birdsong motive transferred to LH bar 7; diatonic flourish; strong perfect cadence bar 8.
	9–16	G♭ major	Exact repeat of bars 1–8.
B	17–20	D major	Birdsong motive at same sounding pitches (F# and C#, enharmonic to G♭ and D♭). Descending sequence → perfect cadence.
	21–24	D major	Similar to bars 17–20 but varied in bar 3 — more chromaticism; no clear cadence.
	25–28	D major vs G♭	Birdsong motive over ambiguous harmony — D major and G♭ major in conflict (enharmonically F# major). Ends with C# dominant 7th (V⁷ in G♭ major); chromatic flourish.
A	29–36	G♭ major	Exact repeat of bars 1–8.

Modernist / 20th-Century Characteristics

Key Terms

• Modernism: early 20th-century style of radical innovation — composers challenged or abandoned traditional tonality, experimented with form and rhythm, incorporated folk or non-Western elements
• Birdsong transcription: long tradition from Janequin, Vivaldi, Beethoven, Ravel to Messiaen and recent Australian composers
• Circle of fifths (descending fifths) progression: chord roots fall a 5th (or rise a 4th), giving strong harmonic direction (II–V–I etc.)
• Extended chord: chord with notes beyond the 7th (9th, 11th, 13th)
• Enharmonic equivalence: same sounding pitch, different written name (G♭ = F#; D♭ = C#)
• Chromatic passing note / auxiliary note: note using an accidental, moving by semitone
• Pentatonic scale: 5-note scale — avoids harsh dissonance; here as a LH flourish
• Dominant pedal: sustained bass dominant note creating expectation

Birdsong in Classical Music

The tradition of representing birdsong in classical music dates before the Baroque period, with notable examples by Janequin, Vivaldi, Handel, Beethoven, Ravel, and Messiaen. Australian composers including Michael Hannan, John Rodgers, and Hollis Taylor have continued the tradition. Brewster-Jones's collection preceded Messiaen's famous Catalogue d'oiseaux (1956–58) by over thirty years.

Contemporaries of Brewster-Jones

Debussy (French, 1862–1918), Ravel (French, 1875–1937), Scriabin (Russian, 1872–1915), Percy Grainger (Australian, 1882–1961), Bela Bartók (Hungarian, 1881–1945), Margaret Sutherland (Australian, 1897–1984).

The Harpsichord

• In use approximately 1400–1800; compass up to 5 octaves
• Strings are plucked by a quill or leather plectrum — no dynamic shading by touch alone
• Some have two (occasionally three) manuals with stops/couplers for different tone and volume
• Articulation and arpeggiation of chords were important for achieving accentuation
• The virginal and spinet are related instruments
• Was the predominant stringed keyboard instrument before the piano's development; Bach composed for it

The Clavichord

• In use approximately 1400–1800; small, rectangular; compass up to 5 octaves
• Strings struck by a brass tangent (which also divides and dampens the string)
• Capable of dynamic shading; can produce Bebung (vibrato) on sustained notes
• Very soft tone — limited to solo performance in a small room
• Bach's favourite keyboard instrument (according to his first biographer, Forkel)

The Fortepiano

• The late 18th-century piano, sometimes called fortepiano to distinguish it from the modern instrument
• Wood frame (not iron); leather hammers (not felt); strings all parallel (no overstringing); range ~5½ octaves
• Sustaining pedal often operated by the knee
• Lighter tone, less sustaining power than the modern piano
• Preferred by C.P.E. Bach, Haydn, Mozart and their contemporaries

Development of the Modern Piano

• 1700: First piano invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori in Florence — "gravicembalo col piano e forte"
• 1780s: Range increases to 5½ octaves
• 1820s: Metal frames begin to be used
• 1821: Double-escapement action patented by Sébastien Erard — faster note repetition
• 1822: Range reaches 7 octaves
• 1826: Felt hammer covering patented by Henri Pape, Paris
• 1859: Overstringing patented by Henry Steinway Jr. — longer, thicker strings; richer tone
• 1874: Sostenuto (selective sustain) pedal patented by Albert Steinway
• 19th century: iron frame, felt hammers, 7-octave range, overstrung bass = modern piano capable of filling concert halls

Musical Style Periods — Quick Reference

Period	Dates	Key Features	Composers
Baroque	c.1600–1750	Polyphonic; ornamentation; basso continuo; terraced dynamics; motoric rhythm; sequences; closely related modulations	Bach, Handel, Vivaldi, Scarlatti, Telemann, Rameau
Classical	c.1750–1810	Homophonic; light/elegant; balanced short phrases; Alberti bass; diatonic harmonies; sonata form; closely related modulations	Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Clementi, Hummel
Romantic	c.1810–1900	Expressive; rubato; chromatic harmonies (7th/9th chords); lyrical melodies; wide dynamic range; modulations by 3rds; pedal essential; character pieces	Mendelssohn, R. Schumann, C. Schumann, Chopin, Liszt, Brahms, Grieg
Modernist / 20th C.	c.1900–	Diverse styles; challenged/abandoned tonality; complex rhythms; folk/non-Western influences; jazz inflections; wide dynamic range; experimentation	Debussy, Ravel, Bartók, Scriabin, Prokofiev, Messiaen, Brewster-Jones

Key Theory Terms for the Exam

• Rounded binary: ABA′ — falls into two main sections (often with repeat signs); A theme returns midway through 2nd section; ends in tonic. Used by Bach.
• Ternary: ABA — three sections; B contrasting, usually different key; A returns (often varied). Used by Clara Schumann and Brewster-Jones.
• Sonata form: Exposition → Development → Recapitulation. Exposition has 2 thematic groups (tonic + related key). Recapitulation brings all back in tonic. Used by Galuppi.
• Sequence: repetition of a musical pattern at a higher or lower pitch
• Modulation: change of key during a piece; confirmed by a dominant-tonic cadence in the new key
• Pedal point: sustained or repeated note (usually bass); dominant pedal = expectation; tonic pedal = stability
• Appoggiatura: non-chord note resolving by step (usually down); expressive; accented
• Augmented sixth chord: chromatic chord containing augmented 6th above bass; resolves to dominant; types: Italian, French, German
• Secondary dominant: chord functioning temporarily as V of a chord other than the tonic
• Borrowed chord: chord taken from the parallel major or minor key
• Circle of fifths: chord roots fall a 5th (or rise a 4th); gives strong harmonic direction (vi–ii–V–I etc.)